For what should be the last time (I finished the Roberts book) I'm writing a Napoleon-centric post, though I can't promise there won't be future references. 'La Petit Caporal' was so impossibly fascinating as someone who changed the world through sheer will, and I want to remember this stuff. It's kind of long, surveying his rule.
The topic: Napoleon's downfall resulted almost entirely from his own enormous success. Starting with his return from Egypt and rise to First Consul (Coup of 18 Brumaire), he didn't really know failure until the invasion of Russia. In the meantime he transformed France in every way, borrowing heavily from the Enlightenment. Government and laws were rationalized and defeudalized. The Napoleonic Code remains today, though amended. The metric system, invented during the Revolution, was fully adopted. The Empire style influenced the rest of the western world, including many Federal buildings in DC. He updated the organization of the military. He also, likely mistakenly, implemented protectionism (the Continental System) in a bid to hurt Britain economically. Envisioning the Revolution surviving only through himself, it's almost amusing that France had changed so drastically by his banishment that the restored Bourbons couldn't turn back the clock.
Even after all that, when I refer to Napoleon's successes I primarily mean on the battlefield. A tactical genius, it didn't matter that he was almost always outnumbered. Most wars of this era don't have particularly interesting names, just the numbered 'coalition' opposing the spread of Revolutionary France or Napoleon himself. We'll go through them briefly.
The 2nd Coalition (1798-1802): defeated Austria, made peace with Britain.
Named First Consul during ongoing hostilities, Napoleon defeated the Habsburg Austrians at Marengo (Jun 1800), through skillful adaptation that day. The victory solidified French dominance in Italy and strengthening Napoleons tenuous power in Paris. Britain and France later signed the Treaty of Amiens (Mar 1802) for a short-lived peace.
The 3rd Coalition (1805-06): defeated Austria and Russia.
Now Emperor, Napoleon shockingly had the emigre Duc d'Enghien arrested and executed. Austria and Russia declared war. Napoleon raced with his Grand Armee, built for a never attempted British invasion, across central Europe and took Vienna before smashing a combined Austrian/Russian army. Austerlitz (Dec 1805) was his greatest victory and a tactical marvel. Austria, diminished, for years lost appetite for war. Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine, replacing the defunct Holy Roman Empire. It's likely here that Napoleon lost all humility. While Trafalgar (also Dec 1805) guaranteed British naval supremacy, Napoleon never quite grasped what had happened.
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The 4th Coalition (1806-07): defeated Prussia and Russia.
Fearing growing French hegemony in central Europe and encroachment on the German states, Prussia declared war, joined by Russia. Napoleon again flew across Europe, took Berlin and defeated the Prussians at Jena-Auerstedt (Oct 1806). The larger victory was attained by the 'Iron Marshal' Davout though Napoleon never gave proper credit. Continuing east, the conflict with the Russians culminated with Friedland (June 1807), where the French literally pushed the opposition into a river, destroying them. At Tilsit (July 1807) Prussia ceded large swaths of territory and Russia was forced into the Continental System, causing lingering resentment. It was the true height of his power.
The 5th Coalition (1809): defeated Austria.
As an outgrowth of the Peninsular War, which saw the occupation and temporary rule of Spain over large-scale guerrilla resistance, Austria declared war. In a bloody struggle seen most clearly at Wagram (July 1809), Napoleon succeeded in getting the Habsburgs to sue for peace. Austria lost more land and Napoleon (after divorcing Empress Josephine) married Marie-Louise Habsburg. However, France and the client states were tiring of war and the brutal battles hurt the image of French military superiority.
Wondering about the British all this time? Their policy of the era included sending vast sums of money to the continental powers fighting these wars. While a British force did fight the French in Iberia, they mostly stuck to financial support as part of a near constant state of war. It's endlessly amazing to me that Napoleon never faced down a British army until Waterloo.
It was after Tilsit that things started to change. Napoleon had repeatedly defeated the powerful ruling monarchies of Europe who weren't going to give up. His victories developed a pattern, where he would take the enemy capital, score a single decisive victory and his enemies would quit. This victory turned out to be more difficult with subsequent wars. The monarchies, meanwhile, reformed their armies and copied what made Napoleon successful militarily, like the Corps system. As time went on, they adapted and he did not.
It's not often in history that conventional wisdom is so simple and accurate. The attempted invasion of Russia cost Napoleon everything. Why did he do it? Well, he put together a massive army (650k+) between French troops and conquered states. And he didn't think he could lose, he hadn't yet after marching far across Europe more than once. He felt compelled to keep Russia in the Continental System, as they were again trading with Britain. Assuming he'd force a conclusive battle to swiftly end hostilities, he crossed the Nieman into Russia (June 1812). It was one of the classic blunders.
With no original intention of marching all the way to Moscow, it nevertheless happened following the continually retreating Russian army. He didn't know Tsar Alexander had no intention of surrendering, regardless of outcome. The slow moving campaign was a logistical nightmare that wrecked the army's morale long before the sought engagement at Borodino (Sept 1812). It didn't help that his army was more diverse, with Germans far less loyal to him personally than the French. Technically a victory, he didn't crush the Russian army. After taking Moscow, the city was set ablaze by the Russians themselves. With winter setting in, retreat was necessary. The horror of the march west can't be overstated, as they were harried by Russian armies and punished by an especially harsh winter. Soldiers died by the thousands of exposure and starvation. In the end, more than half a million men were lost on the campaign. The Grand Armee was gone, without losing a battle.
Blood was in the water as Napoleon no longer appeared invincible. He rushed back to Paris to maintain his rule and impressively raised another army the winter of 1812-13. However, this was an almost entirely new army lacking experience and calvary. Prussia followed Russia and Sweden (commanded by former marshal Bernadotte) into war, and were later joined by Austria, who Napoleon desperately tried to keep neutral. It was the 6th Coalition and the first time all his primary foes combined against him. Outnumbered and surrounded, following wise maneuvering by the Allies, Napoleon gave battle at Leipzig (Oct 1813). It was the largest battle in European history prior to WWI with 200k+ French-aligned troops facing 350k+ Allies. Napoleon made mistakes like splitting his army and not focusing on destroying the separate enemy groups. Auxiliary commanders also let him down, as they often had before in independent command. His loss at Leipzig led to the end of the Confederation of the Rhine, eventually the fall of Paris, and finally abdication (Apr 1814).
His success in war begat more war. In those wars his enemies learned from defeat and hardened their resolve. Napoleon grew increasingly confident all while losing honest friends and competent commanders. Two marshals, Bernadotte and Murat, became royalty in other countries, creating divided loyalty and opposition. His arrogance led to a fatal error and the loss of his army, creating an opening that his rivals did not pass up. The French, who had loved the stability and an end to the bloody stages of the Revolution, had long since been exhausted with war. They did not rise up and repel the invaders. With Napoleon trapped the rest of the European powers, foremost the British, wouldn't allow him to keep the throne and threaten them anymore. His exceptional success and ability directly led to his downfall. Napoleon so admired the great conquerors of antiquity, namely Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great, and in toto his name absolutely belongs alongside theirs in more ways than one.
There was still the Hundred Days, indeed, but the first abdication almost certainly marked his end. Europe was united against him. Still, one of histories great what if? moments would be if Napoleon had defeated Wellington at Waterloo (Jun 1815), as he likely could have.
Alright. With that I end my self-imposed book report. Thanks for reading.
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